Serbia

Embroidery is one of the oldest and most meaningful forms of decorative and applied arts in the territory of present-day Serbia. Beyond its role in embellishing clothing and household items, it has long carried a profound symbolic meaning — expressing beliefs, social status, and both ethnic and cultural identity.

Before delving deeper, it is important to define what we mean by “Serbian embroidery.” Here, the term “Serbian” does not refer strictly to the territorial boundaries of the modern Republic of Serbia, but rather to the traditions and characteristics that are inherent to the Serbian people — the national traits of their embroidery heritage.

Between East and West

Serbian culture has always evolved at the crossroads of East and West. The influences of the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires, along with that of the Venetian Republic, are evident across all spheres of life — language, architecture, music, cuisine, and notably, textiles. Among textile crafts, embroidery stands out as the most widespread and expressive medium.

Serbian embroidery is an integral part of the traditional decorative and applied arts, intimately tied to folk costume, everyday life, and cultural identity. Its origins reach deep into antiquity and reflect a rich tapestry of influences — local, Byzantine, Ottoman, Slavic, and Western European — that have shaped it over centuries.

The history of Serbia itself begins in the 6th century, when ancient Slavic tribes settled in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula.

For centuries, Serbia was under Byzantine rule, and the influence of Byzantine culture left a lasting mark on traditional Serbian clothing. One notable example is explored by researcher Mirjana Menković, who traces the history of the zubun — a traditional, richly adorned sleeveless coat worn primarily by women. This garment vividly illustrates the fusion of Byzantine and Serbian stylistic traditions.

In the 12th century, Serbian Queen Helen of Anjou founded a school and shelter for orphans and girls from impoverished families. There, she provided them with an education deemed essential for women of the time — embroidery, writing, and music — and ensured they received a generous dowry. Upon returning to their home communities, those young women would marry and pass down their skills and knowledge to the next generation, while their place in the shelter would be taken by another poor or parentless girl.By the end of the 12th century, the Serbian state had freed itself from Byzantine rule and, by the mid-14th century, had developed into a powerful kingdom that encompassed nearly the entire southwestern part of the Balkans. The Golden age of medieval Serbia came during the reign of Stefan Dušan (1331–1355), a time when the production and ornamentation of textiles rose to the level of fine art. However, following his death, the state fragmented. In 1389, the Serbian princes’ forces suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Kosovo, leading to Serbia's recognition of Ottoman suzerainty. Serbia was fully conquered by the Ottomans in 1459, and for the next 350 years, Serbian lands remained under Ottoman rule. Meanwhile, the northern regions of modern-day Serbia came under Habsburg rule in the late 17th century as part of the Austrian Empire.

The intermingling of embroidery elements, and the selective adoption of those that best expressed the aesthetic sensibilities of the people, gave rise to Serbian embroidery art. This art is united by common features, yet it also reflects pronounced regional and ethnic characteristics.

Like other forms of folk art, embroidery preserves ancient traditions. Skilled artisans borrowed motifs from the embroidery of the upper classes, adapting them to suit the needs and resources of the common people. As a result, Macedonian and Kosovar embroidery often features Byzantine and Serbian aristocratic medieval patterns. In the north, Baroque and ancient Eastern influences were particularly strong, while regions near the Adriatic coast bear the imprint of Renaissance and late Baroque styles.

Regional specifics

Interestingly, a wide variety of embroidery stitches became broadly widespread — many of the same stitches can be found across different regions.

What most clearly distinguished regional embroidery, however, were the materials used and the types of ornamentation. For example, on the slopes of the Dinaric Alps, in the Morava River basin, and in Macedonia, wool was primarily used for embroidery. In the Pannonian Plain, cotton and gold work were predominant. Along the Adriatic coast, silk was prevalent  — although silk was also employed in other regions as well.

Embroidery was done on a wide range of materials, including cotton, linen, hemp cloth, silk, woolen fabric, velvet, and even knitted items. When the thread was likely to fade, the embroidery was done on separate pieces of fabric, which were then sewn onto the garment or item. Before washing, these embroidered patches were carefully removed and laundered separately to preserve the designs.

In Vojvodina, the northern region of the country, embroidery tended to be more refined and delicate, often featuring floral motifs and incorporating goldwork. This style reflected the strong influence of Hungarian and Austrian embroidery traditions. Meanwhile, in Šumadija and southern Serbia, embroidery was typically simpler in execution, characterized by bold geometric patterns. Kosovo and Metohija were distinguished by rich ornaments, gold and silverwork.

Functional Types of Embroidery

Serbian embroidery can be broadly categorized into three types: ecclesiastical, folk, and court embroidery.

Embroidery was especially cultivated in medieval Serbian monasteries, where church vestments, altar cloths, and other liturgical items were produced and richly adorned using luxurious materials such as silk and gold or silver threads. This sacred work was carried out by both nuns and monks, as embroidery was considered a part of religious devotion. It required a high level of craftsmanship and was regarded as a holy labor.

Outside the monasteries, embroidery was practiced by women of all backgrounds — from village girls to noble ladies at the courts of Serbian rulers and aristocrats.

In folk tradition, embroidery was widely used to decorate:

• Clothing: shirts (košulja), vests (prsluk), aprons (pregača), and head gear;

• Household textiles: tablecloths, pillowcases, curtains, and towels;

• Wedding and ceremonial items: such as ritual towels and belts.

In traditional Serbian society, the ability to embroider was regarded as one of the most essential virtues  a young woman could possess. From early childhood, girls were taught embroidery — as it was not merely a form of decorating garments, but also a way to cultivate patience, precision, and love. Intricate embroidered patterns often carried symbolic meanings, representing prosperity, health, and protection from evil.

As part of wedding preparations, girls assembled a dowry that included embroidered towels, shirts, aprons, scarves, and even bed covers. Those items played a vital role in wedding rituals and symbolized the bride’s transition into a new stage of life. In addition to clothing and household textiles, a bride was also expected to prepare embroidered gifts for her future in-laws.

Embroidered towels were used to decorate the wedding procession — horses and carriages were adorned with them, enhancing the beauty and festivity of the occasion. Interestingly, this tradition has endured into modern times: cars in contemporary Serbian wedding processions are still often decorated with embroidered towels.

A girl’s dowry was often embroidered with the help of her mother, grandmother, and sometimes even her friends. The process of embroidery was accompanied by songs and rituals, creating a shared experience that brought young women together as a close-knit community. In wealthier families, it was not uncommon to hire a skilled village embroiderer to complete the dowry work.

Embroidery was also an integral part of the education of noble women during the Middle Ages. The materials used by embroiderers were the same as those found in Byzantine courts and monasteries: silk fabrics, silk threads, and silver or gold-coated wire. The motifs were frequently inspired by religious iconography.

Colors and Techniques

Embroidery decorated a vast surface area of traditional clothing — sleeves, the front panels of shirts and vests, the back, skirt hems, and headwear — but only the visible parts were embellished. Ethnographers have identified at least 60 different types of embroidery stitches. Rarely was a single stitch type used in one item; more often, a combination of stitches appeared, sometimes up to nine within a single motif. The most common stitches included the cross-stitch, chain stitch (tambour embroidery), double-sided satin stitch, herringbone, and goldwork (especially in wealthier regions). Goldwork will be discussed in more detail further in this article.

Many items also featured openwork elements — drawn threadwork, cutwork, and filet netting. These techniques were regarded as a manifestation of a woman’s skill, precision, and virtue. Such embroidery was often reserved for items used to decorate the home or for pieces included in a bridal dowry.

Embroidery could be either monochromatic or multicolored, and in some cases, even mosaic-like in its complexity.

In terms of color palette, the most dominant hues were red, black, deep blue, and white.

White-on-white embroidery (white thread on white fabric) was characteristic of Vojvodina and northern Serbia, while black embroidery was prevalent in Montenegro.

Deep blue embroidery distinguished the traditions of western Bosnia, and red peonies were a signature motif of the Morava River regions.

In northwestern Serbia, particularly around the town of Loznica, red-and-black cross-stitch embroidery was especially popular.

Motifs and Symbolism

Serbian embroidery abounds with symbols rooted in nature, spirituality, and everyday life. Many of its motifs were believed to have protective or talismanic functions and were passed down through generations.

Jelica Belović Bernadzikovska, a renowned researcher of traditional Serbian ornamentation, identified five key periods in the development of Serbian motifs: mythological, Christian, Ottoman, classical, and modern.

The motifs can be either geometric or vegetal, and their style may range from highly stylized to more naturalistic representations. Common geometric patterns include diamonds, crosses, zigzags, and stars.

Floral and plant-based motifs often depict grapevines, the Tree of Life, blossoms, buds, and leaves. Animals and birds frequently appear as symbols of fertility or protection. Sun and water motifs are associated with vitality, abundance, and prosperity.

In terms of origin, Jelica Belović Bernadzikovska proposed a division into: traditionally Serbian motifs (e.g. chair, fire, grapevine, mirror, lizard, turtle, crosses, etc.); Greek motifs (e.g. octopus, candle); and Turkish motifs (e.g. tulips, pots, domes). 

Regional preferences also played a role in stylistic choices: mountainous and central areas of Serbia typically favored bold geometric embroidery, while Vojvodina was known for its more refined, floral patterns.

The Magical Significance of Serbian Embroidery

In addition to its aesthetic function — decorating clothing or household items — and indicating the status of its owner, Serbian embroidery was also believed to serve a protective, talismanic purpose. This is mentioned in several sources, including Marija Šćekić Marković’s Folk Costume of Yadar and Violeta Cvetanoska’s A Whisper Through Eternity: Chilims from the Ethnological Collection of the National Museum in Kralyevo.

Embroidery was believed to offer protection against evil spirits, the evil eye, witchcraft, illness, and misfortune — against all forms of “unclean forces” in the broad sense as understood by traditional folk belief. Particular attention was paid to embroidering the openings of garments and exposed parts of the body, such as cuffs, collars, and hems — points of transition between the body and the outside world. It was thought that these “openings” were vulnerable spots through which evil forces could enter a person.

Symbols and Their Magical Power

Below are some of the key motifs found in Serbian embroidery, along with their traditional magical meanings:

• Plant motifs are universal symbols of femininity and fertility, life and renewal, and the home as a blossoming, nurturing space. These designs were often used to decorate items in a bride’s dowry or objects associated with family care and domestic warmth.

• A rose symbolized a young women.

• An oak leaf represented strength.

• A carnation was a symbol of happy love.

• An acorn stood for health.

• A lily was a symbol of courage.

• A diamond represented the earth, fertility, and feminine energy. Diamonds were commonly used on wedding garments or girls’ clothing.

• A cross is a protective symbol, often embroidered in the form of geometric intersections.

• A star / rosette is a solar symbol representing order, light, and protection.

• The Tree of Life symbolizes the connection between the three realms: the underworld, the earthly world, and the heavens. It was often depicted as a stylized plant or flower.

• Spirals and zigzags are symbols of water, movement, and the transition between the worlds.

• A bird represents messengers from the spiritual world, birds were sometimes seen as the souls of deceased ancestors.

• Color as a Magical Code

• Red was believed to be the primary protective color. It symbolized blood, life, and strength and was frequently used in wedding embroidery and children’s clothing.

• Black was considered a symbol of the earth, but also the boundary between life and death.

• White stood for purity, light, and connection with the divine.

• Blue was regarded as a kind of protection against the evil eye; it symbolized the sky and water.

Today, Serbian embroidery is experiencing a revival. It is used in modern fashion trends (ethnic design), interior decoration, as well as in art projects and souvenirs. Numerous workshops and cultural centers across Serbia are dedicated to preserving and teaching traditional embroidery techniques.

Embroidery in Folk Songs and Legends

Embroidery is frequently mentioned in Serbian folk songs as a symbol of love, care, and beauty. Motifs such as tulips, stars, and crosses embroidered on clothing are often linked to wishes of happiness, fertility, and protection.

These songs celebrate the skill and patience of embroiderers, highlighting the cultural importance of their craft within the family and the wider community. They praise the beauty of the embroidered patterns, the tools and materials used — such as the đerđef (embroidery hoop), needle, ibrisim (silk thread), and gold — and the deep respect for the woman who masterfully creates them. Embroidery, in this context, becomes a powerful symbol of feminine virtue and craftsmanship, reflecting not only artistic talent but also the love and devotion invested in each stitch.

While songs solely devoted to embroidery are rare, references to stitching, needles, threads, and ornamented clothing are common in both lyrical and ceremonial songs. These often mention elements of a bride’s dowry — embroidered towels, shirts, and other textiles — underscoring the diligence, creativity, and worth of the young woman who made them.

The Legend of Milya the Embroiderer

In the village of Vezichevo (Vezićevo), near the town of Pozharevats (Požarevac), there lives a legend about a young woman named Milya, known as Vezilja — the Embroiderer. Renowned for her talent and dedication, Milya was celebrated for her exquisite embroidery artistry.

She remained unmarried throughout her life, having refused to marry the man chosen by her father. Instead, she chose to devote herself to the art of embroidery, earning her living through her craft. Day after day, Milya worked diligently, selling her embroidered creations.

According to the legend, she eventually used her earnings to build a church in her village, which came to be known as the Church of the Embroiderer (Crkva Vezilje). The church stood as a powerful symbol of her strength, independence, and creative spirit.

Sadly, the church was destroyed during the period of Ottoman rule, but the memory of Milya and her unwavering devotion to her craft lived on in local songs and stories.

This legend highlights the profound cultural significance of embroidery in Serbian tradition — not merely as a craft, but as a symbol of women’s independence, resilience, and artistic expression.

Serbian embroidery is a powerful symbolic language, woven with threads and patterns. Every embroidered shirt or tablecloth is more than just a decorative item; it is a vessel of cultural memory, feminine wisdom, and magical protection of the dynasty. It is a living heritage that passes down through generations a language of symbols, emotions, and the worldview of a people.

Each stitch holds history, spirituality, and cultural memory. Despite the passage of time, embroidery remains a vital expression of national identity — a bridge between past and present, tradition and modernity. By preserving and reinterpreting this art today, we not only honor the labor and craftsmanship of our ancestors but also breathe new life into a priceless cultural code.

Goldwork (Zlatovez)

The most luxurious form of goldwork, known as zlatovez, was traditionally crafted in the region of Vojvodina. It was used to embellish women’s shirts, aprons, scarves, headgear, caps, and men’s shirts as well. Zlatovez in Vojvodina is believed to have been influenced by Central European Baroque, although certain techniques and decorative elements were introduced by settlers from southern regions in the late 17th and 18th centuries. This is evidenced by the traditional methods used in crafting goldwork and the characteristic motifs.

One of the most frequently encountered one is the tulip, along with other ornaments of Eastern origin. The gold and silver threads used in goldwork were made by drawing thin strips of metal into fine threads. Additionally, threads of yellow silk or cotton twisted together with metallic fibers were commonly used.

There were two primary techniques used in creating goldwork:

• pierced embroidery, in which the thread was stitched directly through the fabric;

• couching over paper, where threads were laid on the surface of a paper-backed base and secured from the reverse side using sewing thread.

Photo 4. Libada, a piece of urban women's costume. Goldwork (zlatovez).

Zmijanje Embroidery

Another type of embroidery that must be mentioned in our work is Zmijanje embroidery, which was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2014.

This technique is easily recognizable: cross-stitch embroidery done in deep blue thread, handmade with vegetable dyes, on a light background, forming a geometric pattern. Zmijanje embroidery decorates towels, bed linen, scarves, wedding dresses, blouses, and skirts. Until the early 20th century, it was applied exclusively to linen or hemp fabric; since the mid-20th century, cotton has also been used.

The ornamentation may include diamonds, family crosses, branches, and flowers—symbols representing protection of the family, home, and descendants.

Ritual Embroidery

• Wedding embroidery (e.g. on ceremonial towels or the bride’s sash) served as a protective charm for the family and lineage. It often featured ancient symbols of femininity, fertility, and the sun. In Bosnia, Herzegovina, Dalmatia, and Montenegro, there was a tradition of dressing the bride in a red woolen cloak adorned with black embroidery. These cloaks were rare and expensive, and not every family could afford one, so they were often borrowed.

• Christmas and Easter embroidery was used to decorate homes and altars, blending pagan and Christian beliefs.

• Embroidered aprons and belts were considered especially powerful magical items, as they protected the abdomen — the symbolic center of life.